Constantine I AV Solidus. Ticinum, AD 324. CONSTANTINVS P F AVG, laureate bust right / VICTORIB AVGG ET CAESS NN, Victory seated right on cuirass and shield, holding shield inscribed VOT XX, trophy and captive before; SMT in exergue. RIC 110; Depeyrot 17/12. 4.44g, 19mm, 6h. Extremely Fine. Extremely Rare, apparently the third and finest known specimen, the only one in private hands. This type, known only from one example in Leningrad and a rather sad example acquired by the BM in 1981, was curiously dated by RIC to AD 320/1, despite the obvious vicennalia celebrated on the reverse, and the corresponding issues of Sirmium, Nicomedia and Cyzicus being dated all to 324. Struck in anticipation of Constantine’s vicennalia which would begin the following year on 26 July 325, this coin proudly advertises the military victories of Constantine and his sons Crispus and Constantine Caesar, and the shield held by Victory announces the coming vicennalia. The emperors had much to celebrate; the preceding four years had seen a string of dazzling victories. In 320 Crispus had led a victorious campaign against the Franks, bringing twenty years of peace to the Rhine frontier. The following year Constantine had expelled the Goths from the Danube frontier and led an expedition into the old province of Dacia, either repairing Trajan’s bridge or erecting a wholly new one in the process. In 323, taking with him his seven year old son and namesake, Constantine defeated an invasion of Goths and Sarmatians north of the Danube in Dacia, and claimed the title of Sarmaticus Maximus. Then in mid-324 renewed conflict with Licinius saw Constantine win a great victory at the Battle of Adrianople, and ultimately claim sole rule of the empire by year’s end. Yet despite the auspicious lead-up to Constantine’s vicennalia, the year’s celebrations would end in great bitterness. The climax of the vicennial year celebrations was to be in Rome in July 326, but while en route to Rome Constantine gave the order for the execution of his eldest son Crispus, supposedly on charge of attempted rape of Constantine’s wife Fausta. Zosimus in the fifth century and Joannes Zonaras in the twelfth century both reported that Fausta, jealous of Crispus, and ambitious for the succession of her own sons, brought this untrue accusation against Crispus. Constantine, believing her, and true to his strong personality and short temper, executed his beloved son. A short while later, discovering the truth, Constantine had Fausta killed by suffocation and ordered a damnation memoriae with the result that no contemporary sources record the specific details of her fate.
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Italy. Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II (1197-1250) AV Augustale. Messina circa 1231-1250. CAESAR AVG – IMP ROM, laureate, draped and cuirassed bust right / +FRIDE – RICVS, eagle with spread wings standing facing, head right. H. Kowalski, Die Augustalen Kaisar Friedrichs II von Hohenstaufen, SNR 55, 1976, pl. 1, U7; Spahr 98; Friedberg 134 (Brindisi); MEC XIV, 514-515. 5.22g, 20mm, 6h. Very Fine, somewhat double-struck on obverse.
Anonymous Æ Quadrans. Time of Domitian to Antoninus Pius. Rome, AD 81-161. Head of Annius Verus right, as the personification of Summer, crowned with vine-leaves and with grape-clusters over neck / S•C within wreath of vine-leaves and grapes. RIC 34. 3.89g, 18mm, 12h. Very Fine. Rare. The head on the obverse has been identified as Annius Verus, a son of Marcus Aurelius (Cohen). Van Heesch, in Studia Paulo Naster Oblata I, pp. 193-197, distinguished four types of busts in the series, and connects them with representations of the four seasons, the bust on this coin being that of Summer.
Italy. Verona, Bishop Giuseppe Grasserio AR Medal. By Giuseppe Zapparelli. 1839. IOSEPHVS GRASSERIVS EPISCVPVS VERONENSIS A MDCCCXXXVIIII, bishop’s bust right; below, ZAPPARELLI / PIETATE SAPENTIA LIBERTATE CLARISSIMVS, Pietas, Sapentia and Libertas standing by cippus with a child; below, ZAPPARELLI. 48.00g, 44mm, 12h. Extremely Fine. Very Rare.
Gepids, Pseudo-Imperial coinage AV Tremissis. Late 5th centuries AD. CXTYPIIO-QXXXTOII, pearl-diademed, draped, and cuirassed imperial bust right / XIIXXO-ORXXXИC, Victory standing left, holding long jewelled voided cross; star to right; in exergue, CONO. Unpublished in the standard references. Cf. Rauch sale 81, 2007, 813. 1.44g, 15mm, 6h. Very Fine.
Herennia Etruscilla AR Tetradrachm of Antioch, Seleucis and Pieria, Syria. AD 249-251. EPENNIA ETROYCKIΛΛA CEB, diademed and draped bust right, resting on a crescent; [•• below bust] / ΔHMAPX EΞOYCIAC, eagle standing right on palm branch, holding wreath in beak. McAlee 1165b; Prieur 608 (citing 4). 12.74g, 25mm, 5h. Extremely Fine. Very Rare.
Kingdom of Armenia, Tigranes II AR Tetradrachm. Antioch, 70-69 BC. Diademed and draped bust right, wearing Armenian tiara decorated with star between two eagles / BAΣILEΩΣ TIΓPANOY, Tyche of Antioch seated right on rock, holding palm; at her feet, river-god Orontes swimming right; monogram in inner right field, monogram on rock; all within wreath. Depeyrot, Armenia 29; Bedoukian 20. 15.92g, 26mm, 1h. Good Very Fine.
C. Annius T. f. T. n. and L. Fabius Hispaniensis AR Denarius. North Italy and Spain, 82-81 BC. C•ANNI•T•F•T•N•V•PRO• COS•EX•S•C•, diademed, draped bust of Anna Perenna right; scales before, winged caduceus behind, Carnyx below / Victory driving quadriga right, holding reins and palm-branch; Q above, [L•]FABI•L•F•H[ISP] in exergue. Crawford 366/1a; RSC Annia 2a. 3.69g, 20mm, 9h. Extremely Fine.
Didia Clara AV Aureus. Struck under Didius Julianus, Rome, April-May AD 193. DIDIA CLARA AVG, draped bust right / HILAR TEMPOR, Hilaritas standing left, holding palm branch in right hand and cornucopiae in left. C. 2; BMC 13; RIC 10; Calicó 2402. 6.56g, 19mm, 6h. Very Fine. Scattered marks and scratches. Extremely Rare. Ex Sotheby's 'Collection of Highly Important Greek and Roman Coins', 20 June 1979; lot 123; Ex Münzen & Medaillen XXI, 9 March 1960, lot 64; Ex Vicomte de Quelen Collection, Rollin-Feuardent, 7 May 1888, lot 1267. This aureus, struck in the year her father Didius Julianus bought the throne of the Roman Empire at auction, shows Didia Clara as the proud bearer of the title Augusta which she and her mother Manlia Scantilla had assumed. Although she was allegedly the most beautiful woman in all of Rome, we know hardly anything about her life. She was married to Cornelius Repentinus, who served as a prefect of Rome during her father’s brief reign. Silver coins of this enigmatic Augusta are rare, and in gold they are very seldom seen. Hilaritas commonly appears on the coinage of Didia Clara. This Roman goddess personified happiness and celebration, often in the wake of the birth of a child into the imperial family. There are no records available to confirm whether Didia had children, but perhaps this type of coinage offers a clue that she may have. However these children would have never received imperial positions as the new emperor Septimius Severus removed her title following the death of her parents in the summer of 193. The fate of this mysterious woman following such tragedy is unknown.
Kings of Mauretania, Juba II AR Denarius. Caesarea, Circa 25 BC-AD 23. REX IVBA, laureate head right / ΒΑΣΙΛΙ ΚΛΕΟΠΑΤΡΑ, head of Cleopatra Selene left. Mazard 364; MAA 107-8; Cf. SNG Copenhagen 566 (rev. legend and bust variant). 3.21g, 18mm, 5h. Good Very Fine, lightly toned with blue iridescence. Beautiful style, with a very sensitive portrait of Cleopatra Selene. Extremely Rare. The Ptolemaic princess Cleopatra Selene was born to Cleopatra VII and Mark Antony in about 40 BC, but the precise date of the death of is unknown - she may have died before AD 6/7 when Juba II married the Herodian Princess Glaphyra, but dated coin issues in her name indicate her being still alive until about AD 17 and that in fact Glaphyra was probably Juba’s second wife while she still lived. It is known that by the time Juba II died in AD 23 she was already dead, as it is recorded that he was buried alongside his first wife in the Royal Mausoleum near ancient Iol, later Caesarea Mauretaniae, modern Cherchell in what is today Algeria.
Constantine IX Monomachus AV Tetarteron Nomisma. Constantinople, AD 1042-1055. +IhS XIS REX REGNANTINM, facing bust of Christ Pantokrator, wearing nimbus crown, and holding book of Gospels / +CWNSTANTNOS' LE RM, crowned bust facing, wearing jewelled chlamys, holding labarum in right hand and globus cruciger in left. DOC 6; Sear 1833. 4.06g, 17mm, 6h. Good Very Fine.
Geta Æ Sestertius. Rome, AD 211. P SEPTIMIVS GETA PIVS AVG BRIT, laureate bust right / TR P III COS II P P, Italia seated left, holding sceptre and cornucopiae; at her feet, female figure (Annona or Ceres?) seated to left holding stalk of grain; at side of throne, river-god Tiber reclining to right, hand on urn. RIC 171a; BMC 45; Banti 55. 25.33g, 33mm, 12h. Near Mint State. Very Rare, and in incredible state of preservation. Untouched surfaces, and undoubtedly the finest known. From the Alban Collection. The intense mutual dislike that the sons of Septimius Severus and Julia Domna had for each throughout their lives is well known. Although Septimius intended for Caracalla and Geta to jointly rule the empire after his death in the manner of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, and despite the best efforts of the emperor and empress to reconcile their sons, the two brothers were incapable of working together. Until the death of Septimius in AD 211, Caracalla and Geta had portraits on the imperial coinage that were so similar that they were virtually indistinguishable by their faces alone. However, after the death of Septimius, in an effort to be seen as the true successor by virtue of similitude, Geta had his portraits made in the old likeness his father, with a longer beard sporting luxuriant curls, which he no doubt hoped would add a look of maturity as well as implying that the apple had not fallen far from the tree. The seated figure on the reverse, though not specifically named as Italia, is identified as the personification of Italy on the basis of the presence of the river god beside her throne, who must represent Tiber, and the small figure before holding a stalk of grain, marking her out as either Ceres or Anonna (most likely the latter, since Ceres would take precedence over Italia). Holding a cornucopiae, the figure of Italia is likely intended to convey a theme of prosperity and bounty, a positive message for the beginning of his reign, which would be cut brutally short by his brother only months later.
Civil War, Vindex AR Denarius. Spanish mint in support of Vindex/Galba, early AD 68. LIBERTAS RESTITVTA, bust of Libertas wearing necklace right / S P Q R on round shield within oak wreath. RIC 27; BMC 12. 3.54g, 18mm, 5h. Very Fine. In early 68 AD, as a reaction to Nero's tax policy, the governor Vindex attempted a revolt in Gaul, calling on Galba to join the rebellion against Nero. Although Vindex was defeated, popularity was growing for Galba, and, sensing this, Nero fled Rome. Shortly after, the Senate decided to oust Nero by declaring him a public enemy, thus spurring on Nero's suicide. His death saw the arrival of the first civil war since the defeat of Marc Antony in 30 BC. Consequently, between June 68 AD and December 69 AD, Rome witnessed a period of anarchy and a series of quick successions. Four Emperors ruled in this period: Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and Vespasian, with the latter securing the imperial throne and founding the Flavian dynasty.
Constantine V Copronymus, with Leo IV and Leo III, AV Solidus. Constantinople, AD 750-756. CONSTANTINOS S LEON O NEOS, crowned facing busts of Constantine V and Leo IV, each wearing chlamys; cross above, pellet between / C LEON P A MUL, crowned facing bust of Leo III, wearing loros, holding cross potent in right hand. DOC 2c.4; Füeg 4.B.6; Sear 1551. 4.47g, 20mm, 6h. Near Extremely Fine.
Julia Domna AV Aureus. Rome, AD 193-196. IVLIA DOMNA AVG, draped bust of Julia Domna right, her hair in six waves and bound up at the back / VENERI VICTR, Venus standing right, seen from behind, half nude with drapery hanging low beneath her posterior, holding palm branch in her left hand, a globe in her right and leaning with her left elbow on a low column to her left. BMC 47; Calicó 2641a; Hill 100; RIC 536 (Severus). 7.29g, 21mm, 12h. Fleur De Coin. From the Ambrose Collection; Ex Hirsch 281, 2 May 2012, lot 899. Cassius Dio relates an anecdote that, prior to the wedding of Septimius Severus and Julia Domna, Septimius is supposed to have dreamt that Faustina Junior, wife to the last worthy emperor Marcus Aurelius, prepared their nuptial chamber within the Temple of Venus and Roma, near the imperial palace. Such a link back to the golden years before the depravations of Commodus and the ensuing civil war implied to the ever-superstitious plebs Faustina's approval of Septimius and Julia, offering her blessing to them while portending their destiny as the rightful rulers of the empire, sent to guide Rome back to better times. Septimius aspired to restore peace and stability to the Roman Empire, and his wife Julia was to play an instrumental role in this endeavour. By all accounts their marriage was a very happy one, and it is testament to affection in which Julia held her husband that she chose to accompany Septimius on all of his military campaigns at a time when the women of Rome were expected to stay behind in the city and await their husband's return. Fittingly, the high regard in which Septimius held his wife for her resilience, political views and faithfulness is attested to by the great number of titles conferred upon her, including that of Mater Senatus et Patriae (mother of the Senate and Rome) and, on account of her companionship in the field, Mater Castrorum (mother of the camp). The naturally strong bond exhibited by Septimius and Julia could not have been a better stabiliser to the teetering empire after the so-called 'Year of the Five Emperors' in AD 193, and the opportunity was not lost on the new emperor and empress to secure their own positions. An association with Venus was favoured for the Empress' early coinage, so that the first issues struck for Julia feature the goddess, as we see on this stunning aureus. Julia was to be presented as a model of traditional Roman values, and here we see why the association with Venus was a crucial starting point: Venus is here represented as the goddess of victory, holding a globe in her hand to signify Roman dominion over the known world. Of course, her other roles as goddess of love, beauty, fertility and motherhood, all equally important to Julia, are not forgotten in the design of this reverse type and further secure her position as the mother of the state.
Lucius Verus AR Denarius. Rome, AD 163-164. L VERVS AVG ARMENIACVS, bare-headed and draped bust right / TR P IIII IMP II COS II, Mars standing right, holding spear and resting on shield set on ground. RIC -, cf. 514-516; C. -; BMC -. 3.35g, 17mm, 11h. Extremely Fine. Apparently unpublished bust variant.
Kings of Elymais, Kamnaskires V AR Tetradrachm. Seleukeia on the Hedyphon, Year 267 = 46/5 BC. Diademed and draped bust left, with pointed beard; star and anchor behind / BACIΛEΩC KAΠNACKIPOY TOY EΓ BACIΛEΩC KAΠNACKIPOY, diademed and draped bust left, wearing beard, date in exergue. Van’t Haaff p. 75, subtype 1-4. 14.01g, 30mm, 12h. Near Extremely Fine. Very Rare.
Constantine V Copronymus, with Leo IV and Leo III, AV Solidus. Constantinople, AD 750-756. CONSTANTINOS S LEON O NEOS, crowned facing busts of Constantine V and Leo IV, each wearing chlamys; cross above, pellet between / C LEON P A MUL B, crowned facing bust of Leo III, wearing loros, holding cross potent in right hand. DOC 2f.1-3; Füeg 7.A.5; Sear 1551. 4.31g, 20mm, 6h. Extremely Fine.
Michael IV the Paphlagonian AV Histamenon Nomisma. Constantinople, AD 1034-1041. +IhS XIS REX REGNANTINM, bust of Christ facing, with ornate crossed nimbus, raising right hand in blessing and holding Book of Gospels in left / +MIXAHL bASILEUS RM, bust facing, with short beard, wearing crown with cross and loros, holding labarum and globus cruciger; above to left, the hand of God. Sear 1824; DOC 1. 4.41g, 26mm, 7h. Near Mint State. Areas of flatness. Well detailed and centred.
Philip I AR Tetradrachm of Antioch, Seleucis and Pieria, Syria. AD 249. AYTOK K M IOΛI ΦIΛIΠΠOC CEB, laureate, draped and cuirassed bust right, seen from behind / ΔHMAPX EΞOYCIAC YΠATOΔ, eagle standing left holding wreath in beak; ANTIOXIA SC in in two lines in exergue. Prieur 444; McAlee 935. 14.66g, 27mm, 6h. Good Extremely Fine.
Greco-Baktrian Kingdom, Eukratides I 'the Great' AV Stater. Circa 170-145 BC. Diademed and draped bust right, wearing crested helmet adorned with bull's horn and ear; all within pelleted border / BAΣIΛEΩΣ MEΓAΛΟΥ above, EYKPATIΔOY below, the Dioskouroi on rearing horses right, holding palm fronds and spears; monogram in lower right field. Al. N. Oikonomedes, 'The Gold Coinage of the Indo-Greek King Eukratides I (171-155 B.C.),' North American Journal of Numismatics 7.6 (1968), Group B; F.L. Holt, 'Eukratides of Baktria,' Coins, Cults, History and Inscriptions III: Studies in Honor of Al. N. Oikonomedes, pp. 72-76; Bopearachchi 5 var. (unlisted monogram); cf. Bopearachchi 7A (drachm); cf. SNG ANS 463 (monogram); MIG Type 176 var. (unlisted monogram); HGC 12, 129; Triton XVIII, lot 837 (same obv. die); Triton XIV, lot 428 (same obv. die); Triton VIII, 645 (same dies); Triton I, lot 618 (same dies); Tkalec (29 February 2000), lot 199 (same obv. die). 8.50g, 20mm, 12h. Near Mint State; lustrous. The close die links (only one obverse die and two reverse dies) suggest that this issue was very limited and struck for a special occasion, no doubt at the same time as the fabulous 20 stater medallion weighing 169.2g now in the Bibliothèque Nationale in France, which is the largest gold coin to have been struck in antiquity. The occasion that merited such grand celebration was undoubtedly the victory over Demetrios of India and the conquest of the western parts of the Indo-Greek kingdom: 'Eukratides led many wars with great courage, and, while weakened by them, was put under siege by Demetrios, king of the Indians. He made numerous sorties, and managed to vanquish 60,000 enemies with 300 soldiers, and thus liberated after four months, he put India under his rule' (Justin XLI, 6). Eukratides was one of the last but most important Greco-Baktrian kings, responsible for the overthrow of the Euthydemid dynasty and for waging numerous campaigns against the Indo-Greek kings, temporarily holding territory as far east as the Indus. By the range, quantity and quality of his coinage, which included the above mentioned medallion, we can surmise that his was a reign of considerable significance and prestige. Eukratides was murdered on his way home from India, apparently by his son, who hated his father so much that he 'ran with his chariot over the blood of his father, and ordered the corpse to be left without a sepulture' (Justin XLI,6). The subsequent civil war between rival members of the dynasty, combined with external pressures from the Indo-Greeks, Sogdians and Parthians led to the ultimate collapse of the Greco-Baktrian Kingdom a mere fifteen years later, when it was conquered by the Parthians under Mithradates.
Antoninus Pius Æ Drachm of Alexandria, Egypt. Dated RY 10 = AD 146-147. AYT K T AIΛ AΔP ANTωNINOC CԐB ԐVC, laureate and cuirassed bust right, wearing paludamentum and aegis, seen from behind / LΔԐKATOV, Isis seated right, holding Harpokrates. Emmett 1585; Dattari (Savio) 2649; BMC 1125. 27.90g, 37mm, 1h. Good Very Fine.
Diva Paulina AR Denarius. Rome, AD 236. DIVA PAVLINA, veiled and draped bust right / CONSECRATIO, Diva Paulina, raising right hand and holding transverse sceptre in left, reclining left on peacock flying right. RIC 2 (Maximinus); BMC 127-8 (Maximinus); RSC 2. 3.18g, 20mm, 6h. Good Extremely Fine.
Gordian III Æ Sestertius. Rome, AD 240-244. IMP GORDIANVS PIVS FEL AVG, laureate, draped and cuirassed bust right / AETERNITATI AVG, Aeternitas standing left, raising hand and holding globe; S-C across fields. RIC 297a; Banti 20. 20.43g, 30mm, 11h. Extremely Fine. Beautiful, glossy surfaces.
Constantine V Copronymus, with Leo III, AV Solidus. Constantinople, AD 741-751. B CONSTANTINVS, bust facing, with short beard, wearing crown and chlamys, holding cross potent and akakia / G LEON P A MVL, facing bust of Leo III, with short beard, wearing crown and chlamys, and holding cross potent and akakia. DOC 1g var.; Füeg 3.A.2; Sear 1550. 4.46g, 20mm, 5h. Extremely Fine.
Zeno AV Tremissis. Second Reign, Constantinople, AD 476-491. D N ZENO PERP AVG, pearl-diademed, draped and cuirassed bust right / VICTORIA AVGVSTORVM, Victory advancing to front, head left, holding wreath in right hand and globus cruciger in left; star in right field, CONOB in exergue. RIC 919. 1.48g, 14mm, 6h. Extremely Fine.
![Ostrogoths, Theodahad Ӕ Decanummium. In the name of Justinian I. Ravenna, AD 534-536. INV[ICT]A ROMA, helmeted and cuirassed](https://cdn.globalauctionplatform.com/d9008806-462a-482f-ab33-a66d00b8f8fa/836a81e4-05e5-4edc-d32e-384de71f7951/468x382.jpg)
Ostrogoths, Theodahad Ӕ Decanummium. In the name of Justinian I. Ravenna, AD 534-536. INV[ICT]A ROMA, helmeted and cuirassed bust of Roma right / D N THEODAHATHVS REX, in four lines within wreath. BMC Vandals 16 (Ravenna); Kraus 23 (Ravenna); MIB 82; MEC I, 144; Metlich 90. 1.95g, 15mm, 6h. Very Fine, attractive sand patina.
Elagabalus AR Denarius. Rome, AD 221. IMP ANTONINVS PIVS AVG, laureate, horned and draped bust right / P M TR P IIII COS III P P, Elagabalus standing left, sacrificing over lit altar, holding patera and club(?); a star in left and right fields. RIC -, cf. 46 (one star); BMC -, cf. 256-258 (same); Eauze 350; Solidus 6, 19 July 2015, lot 333 (same dies). 2.89g, 20mm, 5h. Near Mint State. Well struck on sound, lustrous metal. Extremely rare variant unlisted by RIC or BMC, though both note the difficulty in differentiating between the interchangeable branch or club that the Emperor holds.
C. Cassius Longinus AR Denarius. Military mint, probably at Smyrna, Spring 42 BC. P. Lentulus Spinther, legate. Diademed and draped bust of Libertas right; LEIBERTAS before, C•CASSI•IMP behind / Capis and lituus; LENTVLVS SPINT in two lines below. Crawford 500/5; RSC 6. 3.74g, 18mm, 6h. About Very Fine.
Maximianus AV Aureus. Rome, AD 293-294. MAXIMIANVS AVGVSTVS, laureate, draped and cuirassed bust right / HERCVLI VICTORI, Hercules seated facing on rock, head to right, lion's skin on lap, holding club with left hand; bow and quiver resting to right; PR in exergue. RIC -; Depeyrot 5B/5 (these dies); Calicó 4682 (this obverse die). 6.02g, 20mm, 7h. Near Mint State. Insignificant trace of double striking on obverse; exceptionally bold reverse. Ex Jean P. Lambros Collection, J. Hirsch XXIX, 9 November 1910, lot 1347. Given the title ‘Herculius’ by Diocletian, Maximianus’ role was always that of the military might to Diocletian’s stategic planning. Whilst the title reflected the adoption of Hercules as the heavenly father of Maximianus and thus, his familial ties to divinity, it was also representative of his role as junior emperor. Taking the cognomen of ‘Jovius’, Diocletian assumed familial ties to the more authoritative deity of Jupiter, as the father of Hercules, and so indicated his superiority over Maximianus as the director of imperial policy. The reverse depiction of Hercules on this gold aureus displays this imperial theology with the inscription HERCVLI VICTORI (“Hercules the Victor”). Whilst this issue suggests military success, Maximianus was beginning to falter in his role as a military instrument of the empire. His failed invasion of Britain in 289, against the ever-increasing threat of Carausius, led Diocletian to conclude that their divinely sanctioned diarchy was insufficient to manage the Empire. Constantius was appointed to the office of Caesar in the West and Galerius was granted the same position in the East, establishing a Tetrarchy that would relieve Maximianus of his military responsibilities. This coin was most probably produced in response to the increase in bureaucracy that the appointment of two new Caesars in 293 will have occasioned, as well as the ever present needs of the army protecting the eastern frontier of the Empire.
The Social War, C. Papius AR Denarius. Mint moving Papius in Campania, circa 90 BC. Helmeted and draped bust of Mars right; mark of value X• and Viteliú in Oscan characters / Oath-taking scene of four soldiers, two on each side, pointing their swords at pig held by kneeling youth; in exergue, C•PAAPI•C• (retrograde and in Oscan characters). Campana 83; HN Italy 425; RBW 1225. 3.85g, 20mm, 12h. Extremely Fine, pleasant and lustrous metal. Overstruck on a coin of L. Flaminius. Very Rare. From the Alban Collection. Marcus Livius Drusus, who was Tribune of the Plebeians in 91 BC, attempted to bring Roman citizenship to the Italian allies. This, along with his land reform proposals, proved unpopular with the Senate and Roman landowners and he was assassinated before his plans were actioned. With the promise of citizenship rights removed, a rebellion of the Italian allies began, known as the Social War (cf. Livy, Periochae 71). During this war, the allies struck coins which were often inspired by the types found on Roman denarii, with some, like the present example, detailing the names of the rebel generals.
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