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Etruria, Populonia AR 20 Asses. 3rd century BC. Facing head of Metus, tongue protruding, hair bound with diadem, [X:X] below / X. EC I, 58.62 (O32, this coin); HN Italy 152; Sambon 42. 8.50g, 21mm. Very Fine, slightly off centre. From the VCV Collection.

Lesbos, Mytilene EL Hekte. Circa 521-478 BC. Facing gorgoneion with protruding tongue / Incuse head of Herakles left, wearing lion skin headdress; small incuse square behind, incuse club below. Bodenstedt 19.2; BMC -; Boston MFA -; SNG Copenhagen -; SNG von Aulock -. 2.52g, 10mm, 6h. Mint State. Extremely Rare, apparently only the second known after one example recorded by Bodenstedt in the National Museum, Athens. From the Kleines Meisterwerk Collection. This exceptionally rare variety with the incuse head of Herakles facing left also displays an intricately detailed gorgon. Aside from the careful attention the engraver has lavished on such details as the gorgon's teeth and serpent heads, we also see the scaly skin the gorgon has been given between her hair and eyebrows. Even on a larger coin this would be impressive - that this fine work has been accomplished on such a small flan is nothing short of astounding.

Etruria, Populonia AR 20 Asses. 3rd century BC. Facing head of Metus, tongue protruding, hair bound with diadem, X X below / Blank. EC I, 60.72 (O38, this coin); HN Italy 152; Sambon 42-49. 8.67g, 22mm. Good Very Fine. From the VCV Collection.

Lesbos, Mytilene EL Hekte. Circa 454-427 BC. Head of Athena wearing crested Corinthian helmet to right / Two confronted female heads, their faces overlapping; all within incuse square. Bodenstedt 55; HGC 6, 981; Boston MFA 1693; de Luynes 2555. 2.53g, 11mm, 1h. Near Mint State. Very Rare, Bodenstedt lists only 8 examples; CoinArchives records six, of which this is the finest by far. From the Kleines Meisterwerk Collection. This coin seems like a perfectly ordinary hekte when the obverse is first viewed; it is only when the coin is flipped to reveal its highly unusual reverse does the importance and novelty of the type become apparent. Employing a simple but effective form of optical illusion, the reverse appears to show the same female portrait both to the left and to the right. The design is deliberately intended to confound the eye and engage the viewer’s attention in attempting to resolve both portraits independently of the other, which is of course impossible, thus presenting the viewer with a visual paradox. The image works by confusing the brain’s figure-ground perceptual grouping process by giving it contradictory cues, thus preventing it from assigning definitive edges to the observed shapes. As a result, the human visual system will settle on one of the portraits, facing either left or right, and alternate between them. The importance of this type, both in terms of numismatic art and in the wider context of Greek art in general, cannot be understated. It is a thoroughly novel, and never to be repeated experiment in paradoxical illusion on the coinage of a Greek city-state. The Greeks were certainly familiar with the concept of a visual paradox - Plato describes the ourobouros ‘tail-devouring snake’ as the first living thing; a self-eating, circular being: the universe as an immortal, mythologically constructed entity. They were also aware of the power of illusions - Greek architects would apply a technique known as entasis in the construction of their temple columns. Columns formed with straight sides would appear to the observer to have an attenuated appearance, and their outlines would seem concave rather than straight. Therefore a slight convex curve would be built into the shaft of the column, resulting in a swelling in the middle parts, in order to correct this disagreeable trick of the eye. Why then, when they were clearly aware of the power of illusion and paradox, did Greek artists not employ such techniques? The answer most likely lies in the cultural shift away from the static representational art of the archaic period driven by new realistic and idealistic paradigms; artists now sought to demonstrate their skill through attempting to attain aesthetic perfection based on both observational study, and occasionally improvement of nature through idealisation of the subject’s features. Thus non-practical forms of optical illusion were most likely dismissed as curious, but unlikely to earn an artist everlasting fame. It was therefore left to relatively modern artists such as Oscar Reutersvärd, who created the Penrose Stairs (also dubbed the impossible staircase), and psychologists such as Edgar Rubin, who developed the familiar Rubin’s vase (sometimes known as the Rubin face or the figure–ground vase), to explore the visual and psychological implications of these images which trick the brain. The significance of this coin therefore is that it predates the work of both of the aforementioned celebrated ‘illusionists’ by well over two milennia, and demonstrates an appreciation and understanding of optical illusions as an art form, not just a necessary practical expedience.

Lesbos, Mytilene EL Hekte. Circa 357-326 BC. Laureate head of youthful Apollo three-quarters facing / Head of an Amazon to right wearing ornamented helmet with cheek guards up. Bodenstedt 64.3; Traité II, pl. 160, 38; BMC 94, pl. 34, 8. 2.55g, 10mm, 12h. Good Extremely Fine. Extremely Rare, apparently the sixth known, and in exceptional state of preservation. From the Kleines Meisterwerk Collection. The obverse of this beautiful coin was inspired by the remarkable and widely praised ‘Parthenon Group’ tetradrachms of Amphipolis issued during that city’s short-lived war with Philip II of Macedon (see Kurt Regling, ZfN 33 (1922), p. 48, Anm. 2 and p. 60). It is a direct stylistic copy of this brief issue, which has been described as ‘the most beautiful of all the facing-head tetradrachms of Amphipolis and one of the prettiest of all ancient Greek coins’.

Etruria, Populonia AR 20 Asses. 3rd century BC. Facing youthful head of Hercle, wearing lion skin knotted at neck, X X below / Blank. EC I, 65.43 (O1, this coin); HN Italy 155; Sambon 61. 8.12g, 22mm. Very Fine. From the VCV Collection.

Etruria, Populonia AR 20 Asses. 3rd century BC. Head of Menvra facing three-quarter left, wearing three-crested helmet, earring and necklace, X either side of head / Etruscan legend 'pvplvna' around star of four rays and crescent. EC I, 67.16 (O1/R1, this coin); HN Italy 157-158; Sambon 65. 8.47g, 25mm. Very Fine. Very Rare; one of only eleven examples in private hands. From the VCV Collection.

Mysia, Kyzikos EL Hekte. Circa 550-500 BC. Bearded head of Poseidon to left, wearing a helmet in the form of the head of a sea monster; below, tunny fish to right / Quadripartite incuse square. Von Fritze -; cf. Hurter & Liewald, SNR 81 (2002), p. 28, no. 17; SNG Aulock 7291. 2.63g, 11mm. Good Extremely Fine. Extremely Rare. The male head on this coin has been variously identified as a nameless hero, Perseus wearing a griffin skin helmet, or Herakles wearing a lion skin. Other specimens of the type have revealed that the helmet in fact bears a fin-like crest and pointed ears (which on the present coin are off the flan). It has therefore seems that the headdress is actually in the form of a ketos, one of the familiar sea monsters of Greek myth which is most frequently seen on Sicilian coinage, in particular that of Katane and Syracuse. Given that the bearded head is less likely to represent Perseus (who appears beardless, as on von Fritze 65) it could well be Herakles, who killed a ketos in the course of rescuing the Trojan princess Hesione, daughter of Laomedon and sister of Priam. According to some versions of the myth, Herakles was swallowed whole by the monster, and slew it by hacking at its innards for three days until it died, by which time he had lost all his hair. Perhaps during the course of this contest, Herakles temporarily misplaced his trademark lion skin headdress, and resorted to covering his baldness with a nice ketos skin hat. We must bear in mind however that Kyzikene electrum is more frequently influenced by religion (and, it has been supposed, by cult images in particular) than by myth, and so we must look elsewhere for a positive identification - given the marine monster, Poseidon is a prime candidate. Although the god is more frequently encountered with a trident attribute to facilitate identification, a ketos headdress attribute is also appropriate. F. Catalli (Monete Etrusche, Roma 1990, p. 90) included in his work an image of the remarkable Volterra kelebe which depicts a very similar god head wearing a ketos, which though formally identified as Hades, must in fact be Poseidon due to the presence on the one side of a marine monster, and on the other of a bridled horse – both symbols of the God of the Sea. This identification is confirmed by the Etruscan coinage – see Vecchi, Etruscan Coinage I, part 1 pp. 319-321, nos. 2-4 – on these coins we find an identical head identified as Nethuns (Neptune-Poseidon), paired with a reverse showing a hippocamp and border of waves.

Mysia, Kyzikos EL Stater. Circa 550-500 BC. Half-length bust of a winged female deity to left, wearing kekryphalos headdress, round earring and long-sleeved chiton, in her right hand holding a tunny fish by the tail, and raising a flower to her chin; bust truncation indicated by dotted line between parallel lines / Quadripartite incuse square. Von Fritze 75; SNG France 205; Boston MFA 1448 = Warren 1519. 16.15g, 19mm. Near Extremely Fine, struck on a vast, elongated flan. Very Rare, and in excellent condition for the type. The winged figure on this coin of Kyzikos is most frequently simply described as a 'winged female', though on occasion numismatists have ventured to suggest that the depiction is that of a harpy, one of the mythical ‘snatchers’ who were sent by the gods to torment Phineos, the blind seer-king of Thrace, for his transgressions. Though in the Homeric poems the harpies are nothing more than the personifications of storm winds, Hesiod (c. 750-650 BC) described them as the daughters of Thaumas by the Oceanid Electra; fair-haired and winged maidens, who surpassed the winds and birds in the rapidity of their flight. Archaic pottery depicts them thus, in a manner that closely resembles the winged figures on the coins of Kaunos in Karia - see in particular Wagner Museum L164 – black figure clay vase. It was only later tradition that portrayed the harpies as hideous half-woman, half-bird creatures - a development resulting from a confusion of harpies with sirens. By the time of Aeschylus (c. 525-455 BC), this transformation was largely complete, though the harpy’s ‘beautiful’ image is still occasionally seen as late as 480 BC - see the J. Paul Getty Museum hydria/kalpis by Kleophrades, on which the harpies are rendered as young winged girls. The identification of the winged figure on this stater as a harpy is therefore possible, though other identifications are equally plausible. Iris, goddess of the rainbow, was depicted as a winged woman with a herald’s staff, as likewise was Nike, though the latter usually carried a wreath or palm. However, none of these beings was associated with flowers, which above all were an attribute of Aphrodite and Kore-Persephone. Only one parallel for the present type exists in surviving Greek art: the 5th century BC funerary stele now known as ‘The Exaltation of the Flower’, held in the Louvre. Carved in a similarly severe archaic style, the stele depicts two female figures holding up flowers; the left figure in a pose very similar to that shown on this coin. Those figures have been identified either as unknown mortals, or as Demeter and her daughter Persephone - the view favoured by its discoverer Léon Heuzey. The wings on our figure clearly identify her as a goddess though, and the flower is most likely the key to understanding her identity. Kore-Persephone, daughter of Demeter, therefore seems to be a logical choice: she was gathering flowers when Hades came to abduct her, and her return to earth each year was heralded by the blossoming of the meadows. Her overwhelming prominence on the later coinage of Kyzikos further strengthens the case for her depiction here. Regardless of her identity, the winged deity on this coin is rendered in exquisite detail, from her ornamented cap to her expressive face and crinkly chiton. The same treatment of the chiton can be observed in major art of the archaic period, for example in the east frieze of the Siphnian treasury at Delphi.

Etruria, Populonia AR 20 Asses. 3rd century BC. Bearded head of Tinia facing three-quarters right, open wreath (of ivy?) suspended above, ties hanging loose to either side; X on either side of forehead; thunderbolt with arrow-head shaped tip to right / Large winged thunderbolt within a circle of smaller thunderbolts. EC I, 69.2 (O1/R2, this coin); HN Italy 160; Sambon -; Vicari -. 7.00g, 23mm, 12h. Extremely Fine. Of the Highest Rarity - one of only two known examples, and easily the finest and most complete (the other being the ADM specimen sold in NAC 2, 17 = NAC 7, 46, which lacked most of the reverse design). From the VCV Collection. Tinia, the local equivalent of Zeus and Jupiter, was the supreme Etruscan thunder-god who wielded three of the eleven types of thunderbolts known to what the Romans called the Etrusca disciplina - the Etruscan systematic teachings about how to divine the will of the gods and act in accordance with it. Inscriptions and representations in art confirm beyond doubt that Tinia was the head of the Etruscan pantheon, though unlike his Greek and Roman counterparts he stood at the centre of a council or circle of gods and was bound by their will in a way that seems irreconcilable with the temperamental and unruly Zeus/Jupiter. According to Etruscan lore preserved by the Romans, the three types of bolts Tinia might throw were: a benign bolt that served as a warning; a bolt that could do either good or harm, for which he needed the approval of the Twelve Gods; a completely destructive bolt, for which he had to have permission from a group called the Shrouded Gods (Dii Involuti). The Etruscan belief in a wide variety of lightning bolts is reflected in the many different sizes and shapes of such bolts depicted with Tinia in Etruscan art. A bronze mirror c. 470 BC in the Vatican Museums illustrates the entreaties of Thethis (Thetis) and Thesan (Eos) to spare their sons, Achilles and Memnon. Tinia is shown holding two types of thunderbolts; in his left hand are three undulating serpent-like bolts; in his right hand is a single pointed bolt, the other end appearing not unlike the feathered end of an arrow. The bolts he is shown with in other artistic depictions vary wildly from each other, quite unlike the Hellenic Zeus or Roman Jupiter, whose bolts are regularly symmetrical. The Etruscan belief in a rich and widely varying lightning repertoire is therefore quite consistent with its representations alongside Tinia in their artworks, and indeed on this particular coin we can observe several very different types of thunderbolt.

Mysia, Kyzikos EL Stater. Circa 500-450 BC. Roaring griffin standing to left on tunny fish, right foreleg raised and tongue protruding / Quadripartite incuse square. Von Fritze 99; Boston MFA 1455; Gulbenkian 623. 16.12g, 20mm. Near Mint State. Very Rare. An electrum stater of superlative quality, certainly the finest known of the type, and by quality one of the very best of all known Kyzikene staters. An extremely impressive coin. A mythical creature of great antiquity, griffins are represented in Egyptian and Persian art from as early as the fourth millennium BC; from the middle bronze age (c.1950-1550 BC) they begin appearing in Syria, the Levant and Anatolia, and they can be found in 15th century BC frescoes in the throne room of the bronze age palace at Knossos. Closely associated with guarding precious possessions and treasure, and so frequently utilised as a motif in such capacities, the griffin came also to be a symbol of divine power and so a guardian of the divine. Half lion and half eagle, and so possessing the power and dignity of both of these majestic animals, these fearsome creatures in time came to be associated with the vast quantities of gold that flowed south out of the vast northern wildernesses into Greek and Persian lands. This seemingly endless source of gold caused a great deal of speculation among the Greeks as to its origin; the myths and fables eventually found form in the idea of a land they called Hyperborea (‘beyond the north wind’). Homer, Pindar, Hesiod and Strabo all make reference to this legendary place, and Herodotus writes of it: “But in the north of Europe there is by far the most gold. In this matter again I cannot say with assurance how the gold is produced, but it is said that one-eyed men called Arimaspians steal it from griffins. But I do not believe this, that there are one-eyed men who have a nature otherwise the same as other men. The most outlying lands, though, as they enclose and wholly surround all the rest of the world, are likely to have those things which we think the finest and the rarest. (The Histories, 3.116) Though it is generally agreed that Hyperborea never actually existed as any single place, but was rather an amalgam of various fragments of truth and flights of fancy, one possible source for the northern gold may be found in the Altai Mountains of Skythia (straddling modern day Kazakhstan, Mongolia, China and Russia), whose name ‘Altai’ in Mongolian literally means ‘Gold Mountain’. It has been further suggested (Mayor, 1991) that this region, rich in gold run-off from the mountains, and which is also holds a great many Protoceratops fossils, may have been the ultimate source of the Greek myth of griffin-guarded gold. The sandstone rock formations skirting the gold deposits continually reveal through erosion bleached white, fully articulated skeletons of these prominently beaked quadruped dinosaurs, and being conspicuous against the red sediment would have been noticed by early inhabitants and travellers. Indeed, 5th century BC human remains in the Altai Mountains have been found bearing griffin tattoos, occasionally accompanied by gold griffin artefacts. That this symbol of power should be adopted by Kyzikos for its coinage again and again is hardly surprising then, given that the city possessed a virtual monopoly on gold coinage in the area from Troy to Ionia, in the Propontis, in Bithynia and in the Black Sea regions, and the animal’s fabled reputation as a guardian of the precious metal.

Mysia, Kyzikos EL Stater. Circa 500-450 BC. Europa, hair tied up in bun and wearing short-sleeved garment, seated on the back of Zeus in the form of a white bull who charges to left, her right hand holding on to a horn, the left resting on his rump; below, tunny fish to left / Quadripartite incuse square. Von Fritze 108, pl. III, 27; Boston MFA 1477; SNG France 250. 16.07g, 19mm. Extremely Fine. Extremely Rare. This issue appears to have been fairly uniformly struck on flans that were just a little too short - both the von Fritze and Boston specimens are missing the top part of Europa's head. The design is nevertheless charming and well executed, at least insofar as the die engraving is concerned. The reverse design of this coin is almost identical to one featured on a unique tetradrachm of Abdera (Roma IV, lot 242), which shows Europa in the same pose on the back of the bull. Both follow a well established artistic and literary tradition that can be traced back as far as the 8th century BC, according to Herodotus’ dating of Homer, though the myth itself is certainly much older than its earliest known literary appearance (in the Iliad), and its earliest securely dateable visual appearance, which is not seen until the mid-7th century BC. We find the same treatment of the scene in Ovid’s Metamorphoses many centuries later: “And gradually she lost her fear, and he offered his breast for her virgin caresses, his horns for her to wind with chains of flowers until the princess dared to mount his back, her pet bull’s back, unwitting whom she rode. Then - slowly, slowly down the broad, dry beach - first in the shallow waves the great god set his spurious hooves, then sauntered further out ‘til in the open sea he bore his prize. Fear filled her heart as, gazing back, she saw the fast receding sands. Her right hand grasped a horn, the other lent upon his back; her fluttering tunic floated in the breeze.”

Etruria, Populonia AR 10 Asses. 3rd century BC. Laureate male head left, X behind / Blank, but with traces of border and inscription. EC I, 70.269 (O6, this coin); HN Italy 168; Sambon 73-74. 3.14g, 18mm. Very Fine. Extremely Rare. From the VCV Collection.

Mysia, Kyzikos EL Stater. Mid 4th century BC. Large race horse rearing up to right, ridden by Phillip II of Macedon, bearded, wearing kausia, diadem and chlamys; tunny fish to right below / Speckled quadripartite incuse square. Von Fritze 168, pl. 5, 16; Greenwell -; SNG France 315; Boston MFA Supp. 151; Lanz 157, lot 137. 16.00g, 19mm. Near Mint State. A splendid coin, bright and sharply struck. Extremely Rare, and by far the finest known of very few examples. The early Milesian foundation of Kyzikos on the isthmus of the Arktouros peninsula, protruding from the south-west coast of the Propontis, was ideally sited for its role as commercial intermediary par excellence at the centre of east-west trade. The earliest electrum coinage of Kyzikos with its characteristic ‘tunny fish’ emblem dates from about 550, and was based on the Phokaic weight standard of about 16.1g, the equivalent value to a Persian gold daric of 8.4g. They were contemporarily called Kyzikenes and the distribution of hoard finds makes it clear that it was the acceptable currency for trade between Thrace and the northern coasts of the Black Sea, and from Athens to Ionia, so much so that Kyzikenes are mentioned in Athenian inventories (cf. ACGC p. 261-2). This electrum coinage bears a wide variety of types, many of which are mythological or historical and types copied from contemporary Greek poleis from Magna Graecia to the Levant. Before one can identify the obverse type of this splendid Kyzikene, it is important to first secure a date for the issue. The celebrated Prinkipo Hoard of over 200 Kyzikenes, 16 Pantikapaion and 4 Lampsakos gold staters (IGCH 1239; Regling ZfN 1931, pp. 1-46) places the burial date to about 335-4 BC, a chronology followed by most modern studies (see Hurter and Liewald SNR 81, 83 and 85). Even if in 1974 the Philip II gold staters were discovered to be a separate hoard (AJA 1974, 308; CH 2, 1976, 41), this low chronology is confirmed by the presence of three specific copied types: the Alexander the Great young Herakles head type derived from his imperial tetradrachms (von Fritze 194; ACGC 964); a young jockey with raised hand on horse derived from Philip II’s later tetradrachms (von Fritze 214; SNG France 344); the present type with a bearded figure wearing kausia and chlamys riding a horse derived from Philip II’s early tetradrachms which celebrate his victory at the Olympic Games in 356 (cf. Le Rider p. 5, 1; Kraay-Hirmer 562), the same year that Alexander was born. Added to these examples are the Philip II bearded portraits types identified by M. R. Kaiser-Raiss (SNR 63, 1983, Philip II. Und Kyzikos, pp. 27-53; von Fritze 197 and 199). Together these types paint a picture of the last issues of Kyzikene electrum, deriving their types directly from the coinage of the liberating Greek forces led by Alexander. The suggestion that the reverse figure should be identified as Kyzikos, the eponymous founder of the city who was accidentally killed by the Argonauts, lacks any credible supporting arguments, and falls down when the dating of the issue is taken into consideration. With no identifying features besides a kausia, it would be highly illogical to suppose that such an issue, struck at this late period, would represent the mythical founder of the city. Given the evidence presented by the Prinkipo Hoard, and the clear stylistic similarities, an identification of the rider as Philip II of Macedon seems secure.

Kingdom of Lydia, Kroisos AV Stater. Sardes, circa 564/53-550/39 BC. Light standard. mint. Confronted foreparts of lion and bull / Two incuse squares. Berk 3; Traité I 401–3; SNG von Aulock 2875; SNG Lockett 2983 = Pozzi 2726; Athena Fund I 60; BMC 31; Boston MFA 2073; Gulbenkian 757; Zhuyuetang 11. 8.08g, 16mm. Fleur De Coin. Superbly lustrous, exceptionally rare in such quality. Kroisos is credited with issuing the first true gold coins with a standardised purity for general circulation. His kingdom represented the last bastion against Persian expansion westwards into Greek lands; encouraged by a prediction of the Delphic Oracle that if he attacked Persia he would destroy a great empire, Kroisos made his preparations for war with Cyrus the Great. The war resulted in defeat for Kroisos; his numerically superior army was smashed, and the capital Sardes was captured along with Kroisos and his family, who were immolated on the orders of Cyrus. Lydia became a satrapy of the Persian Empire, though it continued to mint coins in the traditional types, and indeed the legendary wealth of Kroisos was used by Cyrus to form the basis of a new Persian gold standard currency.

Dynasts of Lycia, Kherei AR Stater. Uncertain mint, circa 410-390 BC. Helmeted head of Athena right, wearing crested Attic helmet decorated with three olive leaves and spiral / Forepart of Lamassu to right; ẼERẼI (sic, in Lycian) before; all within incuse square. Mørkholm & Zahle II -; Falghera -; Traité -; BMC Lycia -; SNG Copenhagen Suppl. 453 (same dies); SNG von Aulock -. 8.46g, 19mm, 11h. Struck from a worn obv. die, but otherwise Extremely Fine. Rare. This coin bears a very attractive depiction of the forepart of a lamassu, an ancient Assyrian protective deity with the head of a man, the body of an ox (sometimes a lion), and the wings of a bird. First appearing in Assyria during the reign of Tiglath-Pileser I (circa 1114–1076 BC) as a symbol of power, the lamassu motif was used extensively by the Assyrians; typically, lamassu were prominently placed as guardians at the entrances of cities and palaces.

Dynasts of Lycia, Kherei AR Stater. Uncertain mint, circa 410-390 BC. Helmeted head of Athena right / Forepart of bull to right, ẼERẼI (sic, in Lycian) above; all within incuse square. Cf. Mørkholm & Zahle II 33 (quarter stater); S. Hurter, 'A New Lycian Coin Type: Kherêi, Not Kuperlis,' INJ 14 (2000-2), pl. 2, 8; Triton XVI, lot 508 = Triton VII, lot 283. 8.56g, 19mm, 6h. Good Very Fine. Very Rare.

Etruria, Populonia AR 5 Asses. 3rd century BC. Head of Turms right, wearing winged petasos, › behind / Blank. EC I, 84.10 (O4, this coin); HN Italy 163; Sambon 93. 1.42g, 15mm. Very Fine. Very Rare. From the VCV Collection.

Kingdom of Pontos and Cimmerian Bosporos, Pharnakes II AV Stater. Pantikapaion, 53/52 BC. Diademed bust of Pharnakes right, with luxuriant hair falling behind neck / Apollo, semi-draped, seated to left on lion-footed throne, holding laurel branch over tripod, left elbow resting on kithara at his side; BAΣIΛEΩΣ BAΣIΛEΩN above, MEΓAΛOY ΦAPNAKOY below, date ΣMΣ to right, three pellets to left. K.V. Golenko and J.P. Karyszkowski, 'The Gold Coinage of King Pharnaces of the Bosporus,' in Numismatic Chronicle 1972, p. 38, fig. 3 (same dies); MacDonald 185/3; HGC 7, 198. 8.25g, 20mm, 12h. Minor die break on reverse, otherwise Mint State. Extremely Rare – the second known specimen. The three pellets symbol depicted on the reverse of this rare coin is known on Sasanian coins where it held great significance as an old Iranian sacral symbol of power (cf. Ardashir I, SNS I Type IV/3a). Such pellets apparently with the same meaning, and are also found on the debased late staters of the Sarmatian king Thothorses of the Bosporos (cf. MacDonald 647/1). Born the youngest son of Mithradates VI, he nonetheless became the sole heir after the deaths of his brothers Arkathios and Machares – the former died while on campaign in Macedonia in 86, the latter committed suicide after rebelling against Mithradates. After his father's final defeat and escape to Pantikapaion, Pharnakes had no desire to support his father's continued wish to wage war with the Romans. He therefore began a plot to remove Mithradates from power. Though his plans were discovered, the army supported him, not wishing to engage Pompey and the Roman armies again. So in 63 BC, surrounded, Mithradates VI was forced to take his own life. Pharnakes II quickly sent an embassy to Pompey with the body of his father, to be at the disposal of Pompey. Pompey granted Pharnakes the Bosporan Kingdom, and named him friend and ally of Rome. Like his father, he could not resist taking advantage of the war between Caesar and Pompey, thinking Rome to be too distracted to prevent his conquests of Colchis and Lesser Armenia. He defeated Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus and a Roman army, and proceeded to overrun Pontos. Caesar however made haste to give battle himself, and at Zela in 47 BC Pharnakes was routed, escaping with only a small detachment of cavalry. Thus, this parricide would-be 'Great King of Kings' was soundly defeated by the might of Rome in the person of Julius Caesar, who reported this victory to the Senate with the famous phrase: 'veni, vidi, vici' (Plutarch, Caesar. 50; Suetonius, Iulius Caesar, 37).

Kyrenaika, Kyrene AV Stater. Circa 322-313 BC. Polianthes, magistrate. Quadriga trotting to right, driven by a three-quarter facing charioteer; KYPANAION behind / Zeus Ammon standing left, holding phiale over thymiaterion with his right hand and long sceptre with his left; ΠOΛIANΘEYΣ to right. BMC 117. Naville 85k (this coin). 8.66g, 20mm, 11h. A few minor marks, otherwise, about Extremely Fine. Very Rare. Ex LHS 95, 25 October 2005, lot 757; Ex L. Naville and H. Vogel collections, Hess 194, 25 March 1929, 482.

Etruria, Populonia AR 5 Asses. 3rd century BC. Diademed and beaded head right, > behind / Blank. EC I, 89.25 (O1, this coin); HN Italy 174; Sambon 98. 1.82g, 15mm. Good Extremely Fine. From the VCV Collection.

Greco-Baktrian Kingdom, Eukratides I 'the Great' AR Tetradrachm. Circa 171-145 BC. Diademed and draped bust right, wearing helmet adorned with bull's horn and ear / ΒAΣΙΛEΩΣ MEΓAΛOY EYKPATIΔOY, the Dioskouroi on horseback to right, holding palms and lances; monogram to lower left. Mitchiner 177aa; cf. Bopearachchi 6I (curved legend); Bopearachchi & Rahman 239; SNG ANS -. 15.67g, 34mm, 11h. Fleur De Coin. Extremely Rare. From the Ambrose Collection; Ex Roma Numismatics II, 2 October 2011, lot 373. Only two examples of this extremely rare variety with a horizontal legend have been seen on the market in the last decade, and the present specimen is remarkably preserved, whereas the other was in relatively poor condition. The type is known from perhaps as few as half a dozen examples, if that. Struck from dies of a fine and elegant style on a remarkably large flan, this coin has a truly medallic appearance, and is preserved in excellent condition. This is one of the great rarities of Eukratides' coinage. Eukratides The Great was one of the last but most important Greco-Baktrian kings, responsible for the overthrow of the Euthydemid dynasty and for waging numerous campaigns against the Indo-Greek kings, temporarily holding territory as far east as the Indus. By the range, quantity and quality of his coinage, which included the above mentioned medallion, we can surmise that his was a reign of considerable significance and prestige. Eukratides was murdered on his way home from India, apparently by his son, who hated his father so much that he 'ran with his chariot over the blood of his father, and ordered the corpse to be left without a sepulture' (Justin XLI,6). The subsequent civil war between rival members of the dynasty, combined with external pressures from the Indo-Greeks, Sogdians and Parthians led to the ultimate collapse of the Greko-Baktrian Kingdom a mere fifteen years later, when it was conquered by the Parthians under Mithradates.

Indo-Greek Kingdom, Menander I Soter AR Drachm. Circa 155-130 BC. Diademed and draped bust right, wearing crested helmet with bull's horn and ear, BAΣIΛEΩΣ ΣΩTHPOΣ MENANΔPOY / Athena Alkidemos advancing left, shield decorated with aegis over arm, hurling thunderbolt; monogram to right; Karosthi inscription around. Mitchiner 218b; Bopearachchi 16I; SNG ANS 879-92. 2.48g, 17mm, 12h. Fleur De Coin.

Indo-Skythians, Maues AR Tetradrachm. Uncertain northwestern mint, circa 95-57 BC. BAΣIΛEΩΣ BAΣIΛEΩN MEΓΛΛOY MAYOY, radiate deity, holding sceptre, and driver, holding wand and reins, in biga right / Zeus enthroned facing slightly left, holding torque and sceptre; monogram to left. Senior 2.5T. 9.23g, 27mm, 11h. Good Extremely Fine, nearly as struck. Some light deposits. Extremely Rare, and exceptional for the type. Maues is considered to be the first Indo-Skythian king in India to strike coins bearing his own name. He styles himself a grandiose sounding title which may be on account of the clan nature of Skythian society, Maues being the supreme ruler over his fellow clan chiefs. His rise to power seems to have been sudden, judging by the quality of his coinage and the lack of any issues predating his assumption of a royal title. Maues established Skythian power in Gandhara (modern day Pakistan and Afghanistan region) by seizing Taxila and Sirkap from the Indo-Greek kingdom, and gradually he extended his rule over swathes of north-western India. His coins clearly show an adoption of the Greek language, as well as many Greek deities and types. This seems to suggest a policy of assimilation towards the Greeks conquered by Maues, a hypothesis supported by the existence of a coin naming 'Artemidoros, son of the King of Kings, Maues'.

Diadumenian AR Tetradrachm of Ascalon, Judaea. AD 217-218. M OΠ ANTWNI KAI, bare-headed, draped, and cuirassed bust right / ΛHMAPX EΞO, eagle standing facing, head left, wreath in beak, on palm branch; below, dove to right, olive branch in its beak. Prieur 1656 var. (same obverse die, different reverse legend); CNG 67, lot 1158 (same dies). Good Very Fine. Extremely Rare, only one coin of Diadumenian cited by Prieur from this mint.

Anonymous AR Quinarius. Uncertain mint, 211-208 BC. Helmeted head of Roma right; V (mark of value) behind / Dioscuri on horseback riding right; ROMA below in linear frame. Crawford 47/1a; King 3; Sydenham -; RSC -. 2.19g, 16mm, 5h. Fleur De Coin.

Etruria, Populonia AR 2.5 Asses. 3rd century BC. Male head right, UII behind / Blank. EC I, 95.33 (O1, this coin); HN Italy 175; Sambon 84, 88. 0.74g, 11mm. Very Fine. Very Rare; only three examples on CoinArchives. From the VCV Collection.

Anonymous AR Quinarius. Uncertain mint, 211-208 BC. Helmeted head of Roma right; V (mark of value) behind / Dioscuri on horseback riding right; ROMA below in linear frame. Crawford 47/1a; King 3; Sydenham -; RSC -. 2.57g, 18mm, 7h. Fleur De Coin.

Anonymous AR Quinarius. Uncertain mint, 211-208 BC. Helmeted head of Roma right; V (mark of value) behind / Dioscuri on horseback riding right; ROMA below in linear frame. Crawford 47/1a; King 3; Sydenham -; RSC -. 2.43g, 17mm, 7h. Fleur De Coin.

Anonymous AR Quinarius. Uncertain mint, 211-208 BC. Helmeted head of Roma right; V (mark of value) behind / Dioscuri on horseback riding right; ROMA below in linear frame. Crawford 47/1a; King 3; Sydenham -; RSC -. 2.16g, 15mm, 8h. Fleur De Coin.

Anonymous AR Quinarius. Uncertain mint, 211-208 BC. Helmeted head of Roma right; V (mark of value) behind / Dioscuri on horseback riding right; ROMA below in linear frame. Crawford 47/1a; King 3; Sydenham -; RSC -. 2.12g, 15mm, 12h. Fleur De Coin.

Anonymous AR Quinarius. Uncertain mint, 211-208 BC. Helmeted head of Roma right; V (mark of value) behind / Dioscuri on horseback riding right; ROMA below in linear frame. Crawford 47/1a; King 3; Sydenham -; RSC -. 2.29g, 16mm, 8h. Fleur De Coin.

Anonymous AR Quinarius. Uncertain mint, 211-208 BC. Helmeted head of Roma right; V (mark of value) behind / Dioscuri on horseback riding right; ROMA below in linear frame. Crawford 47/1a; King 3; Sydenham -; RSC -. 2.41g, 17mm, 10h. Fleur De Coin.

Etruria, Populonia AR 2.5 Asses. 3rd century BC. Male head right, VII behind / Blank. EC I, 95.37 (O5, this coin); HN Italy 175; Sambon 84, 88. 0.95g, 12mm. Extremely Fine. Very Rare, only three examples on CoinArchives. From the VCV Collection.

Etruria, Populonia AR 2.5 Asses. 3rd century BC. Male head right, UII behind / Blank. EC I, 95.40 (O7, this coin); HN Italy 175; Sambon 84, 88. 0.80g, 11mm. Good Fine, over struck on same type. Very Rare; only three examples on CoinArchives. From the VCV Collection.

Etruria, Populonia AR 2.5 Asses. 3rd century BC. Male head right, wearing necklace, UII behind / Blank. EC I, 96.17 (O15, this coin); HN Italy 175. 1.00g, 11mm. Extremely Fine. Very Rare. From the VCV Collection.

Etruria, Populonia AR 2.5 Asses. 3rd century BC. Male head right, CII behind / Blank. EC I, 96.18 (O16, this coin); HN Italy 175. 0.67g, 10mm. Very Fine. Very Rare. From the VCV Collection.

Marc Antony AR Quinarius. Lugdunum (Lyon) mint, late summer-autumn 43 BC. Winged bust of Victory (with likeness of Fulvia) right / Lion advancing right on ground line; retrograde and inverted DVNI above; LVGV in exergue; A to left, XL to right. Crawford 489/5; CRI 122; King 75; Lyon 2; RPC 512; RSC 4 (Fulvia); Sydenham 1160; Kestner 3717; BMCRR Gaul 40. 1.55g, 14mm, 1h. Near Extremely Fine. Rare. The reverse XL (=40) denotes Antony's age at the time this coin was struck.

Marc Antony AR Quinarius. Lugdunum (Lyon) mint, late summer-autumn 43 BC. Winged bust of Victory (with likeness of Fulvia) right / Lion advancing right on ground line; retrograde and inverted DVNI above; LVGV in exergue; A to left, XL to right. Crawford 489/5; CRI 122; King 75; Lyon 2; RPC 512; RSC 4 (Fulvia); Sydenham 1160; Kestner 3717; BMCRR Gaul 40. 1.55g, 14mm, 1h. Near Extremely Fine. Rare. The reverse XL (=40) denotes Antony's age at the time this coin was struck.

Etruria, Populonia AR As. 3rd century BC. Male head left, I behind / Blank. EC I, 108.2 (O1, this coin); HN Italy -; Sambon -; Vicari -. 0.42g, 9mm. Very Fine. Extremely Rare, one of two known examples and the only one in private hands. From the VCV Collection.

Vitellius AV Aureus. Rome, August - December AD 69. A VITELLIVS GERM IMP AVG TR P, laureate head right / XV VIR SACR FAC, tripod lebes with dolphin above and raven standing right below. BMC 38; BN 75; C. 110; RIC 108; Biaggi 288; Calicó 585. 7.26g, 19mm, 6h. Good Extremely Fine. Very Rare. Lustrous, beautifully struck and possessing a superb portrait. Easily among the finest surviving aurei of Vitellius. Emperor for only eight months, Vitellius was the third to take the purple during the Year of the Four Emperors in AD 69. Consul in 48 and Proconsul of Africa in 60/61, Vitellius commanded the army of Germania Inferior in 68, where he made himself extremely popular with the officers and soldiery through lavish extravagance and lax discipline. It was because of two of his legion commanders on the Rhine that he was acclaimed emperor by the legions in Germania, and they were soon joined by the armies of Britannia, Gaul and Raetia. With Otho’s suicide, Vitellius gained the throne without the need for excessive bloodshed. His short lived reign was characterised by excessive feasting, gambling and indolence. Suetonius records some of the greater outrages which led to his being deserted in favour of Vespasian: ‘Acting more and more in open violation of all laws, both divine and human, he assumed the office of Pontifex Maximus, upon the day of the defeat at the Allia; ordered the magistrates to be elected for ten years of office; and made himself consul for life.’ The reverse of this coin makes reference to Vitellius’s membership of one of the four priestly colleges, the Quindecimviri Sacris Faciundis (the other three being the Pontifices, Augures, and the Epulones), and so also his new self-appointed position as Pontifex Maximus. The raven refers to the college of Augures who interpreted the will of the gods through the study of the flight of birds. The tripod lebes can be linked with the college of Epulones, which arranged the religious feasts and festivals. The dolphin holds several symbolic meanings including that of messenger, protector and guide, and can be associated directly with various gods including Neptune, but when viewed as a symbol for protection and guidance, is associated with the college of Quindecimviri Sacris Faciundis. Members of this college were responsible for keeping the Sybilline Books in safety and secrecy. At the command of the Senate, they consulted the Books in order to discover not exact predictions of definite future events in the form of prophecy, but the religious observances necessary to avert extraordinary calamities and to expiate ominous prodigies (comets and earthquakes, showers of stones, plague, and suchlike).

Trajan Æ Sestertius. Rome, AD 105-111. IMP CAES NERVAE TRAIANO AVG GER DAC P M TR P COS V P P, laureate bust right / SPQR OPTIMO PRINCIPI, Trajan standing left in military attire, holding thunderbolt and sceptre, crowned by Victory; SC in exergue. MIR 14, 71c; RIC 549; BMC 825. 28.50g, 35mm, 7h. Good Extremely Fine, with a superb untouched emerald green patina. Scarce. Ex Astarte XXII, 12 June 2010, lot 171. It is highly uncommon to encounter a sestertius that is both well preserved and displays a sound, untouched patina such as this. The deep green, glassy surfaces make this a coin of immense beauty. Part of a series struck following the conquest of Dacia, the obverse legend DAC refers to the title Dacicus bestowed upon Trajan by the Senate in AD 102. The Dacian campaign was also commemorated by Trajan's Column, one of the most visible and iconic monuments of ancient Rome that survives today.

Diva Marciana AR Denarius. Rome, AD 113-114. DIVA AVGVSTA MARCIANA, diademed and draped bust of Marciana right, wearing pearl necklace, with hair elaborately arranged and bound into tight bun high at back of head / CONSECRATIO, eagle with wings displayed, standing to left with head right. RIC 743; Woytek 719; BMC 650; RSC 4. 3.40g, 20mm, 8h. Near Mint State. Boldly struck and exceptionally sharply detailed. Pleasant light grey cabinet tone. A stunning coin and certainly one of the very finest known examples of the type. From an old European Collection. A public expression of his devotion to his family, Trajan’s relatives were portrayed on his coinage to an extent not seen since the Julio-Claudian emperors. Both his natural father Marcus Ulpius Traianus and adoptive father Nerva are commemorated on his coinage, and Trajan also extended the honour to his living relatives, namely his sister Marciana, his wife Plotina and his niece Matidia. Trajan and his elder sister Marciana maintained a particularly close relationship, and the deep affection that existed between them is evident in Trajan’s decision to award her the title of Augusta, the first sister of an emperor ever to receive the title. Marciana thus became part of the imperial iconography, and her statue was placed together with those of Trajan and his wife Plotina over the Arches of Trajan in Ancona. Marciana would often travel with her brother and assist him in decision making. Throughout the Roman Empire, she was honoured with monuments and inscriptions, and Trajan founded two towns named after her: Colonia Marciana Ulpia Traiana Thamugadi founded in 100 and Marcianopolis founded in 106. If there had been any doubt of the esteem in which Trajan held his beloved sister, it must surely have been dispelled when upon her death, sometime between 113 and 114, she was deified by the Senate at Trajan’s behest. It is on this posthumous coinage of Marciana that the reverse legend CONSECRATIO is first utilised, and it was thereafter frequently employed for posthumous coinages of deified augusti and augustae. Following Marciana’s death, her daughter Matidia was raised to the rank of Augusta in her stead, and coinage was struck in her name also. Through Matidia, Marciana would be the great-great-great grandmother of the future emperor Marcus Aurelius.

Etruria, Populonia AR Drachm. 3rd century BC. Hare leaping right / Blank. EC I, 116.9 (O4, this coin); HN Italy 223; Sambon 31. 4.06g, 18mm. Very Fine. Extremely Rare, one of only nine known examples, of which five are in museum collections. A charming type. From the VCV Collection.

Diva Faustina Senior AV Aureus. Rome, AD 141. DIVA AVG FAVSTINA, draped bust left with hair waved and coiled on top of head / CONSECRATIO, Faustina standing facing in quadriga galloping to left, holding hasta pura, and accompanied by Sol(?), who leans forward, his arm outstretched toward the horses. RIC 383; Calicó 1780; BMC 302. 7.27g, 19mm, 6h. Good Extremely Fine. Extremely Rare. Two other examples of this reverse type are recorded on CoinArchives, both heavily worn, and neither with a left facing bust. Stevenson, in his Dictionary of Roman Coins, rightly refers to this coin as one of the rarest reverses of Faustina (p.374). Annia Galeria Faustina was born into a distinguished and well connected family; her father Marcus Annius Verus was three times consul and prefect of Rome, and she counted Sabina and Matidia as her maternal aunts. Sometime between AD 110 and 115 she married Titus Aurelius Fulvius Boionius Arrius Antoninus (who would later gain favour with Hadrian, be adopted and succeed to the throne, and be known to history as Antoninus Pius). During her life, Faustina Senior was an advocate for the underprivileged, as well as for girls' education. When she died in AD 141, Antoninius Pius was said to be devastated. To honour her memory he had her deified, built a temple for her in the Forum and issued a prodigious coinage in her name as Diva Faustina. Additionally he established an institution called Puellae Faustinianae ('The Girls of Faustina') to assist orphaned Roman girls. The commemorative coinage of Faustina Senior is unusual in that it survives in large numbers with a wide variety of reverse types, this being explained by the fact that her coins continued to be struck until the death of Antoninus Pius in AD 161. This particularly beautiful consecration aureus is notable for the form in which the apotheosis of Faustina is displayed; a parallel issue displays the funeral pyre of the empress and thus the manner of her ascension to godhood, and here we see her being conveyed to her place among the gods and other deified emperors and empresses. Faustina now holds the hasta pura, one of the insignia of the gods, and of the augusti and augustae after their apotheoses. Two other contemporary issues display further elements of Faustina’s deification; one shows the carriage of her divine effigy in a wagon pulled by two elephants, the other illustrates its destination: the temple that Antoninus Pius built along the Via Sacra on the northeastern side of the Roman Forum for the ongoing worship of Diva Faustina. It is both a charming and moving type that must have been particularly affecting to Antoninus, and on the obverse we see Faustina still draped, in the manner of a living Augusta and beloved wife, and not yet veiled in death and divinity.

Marcus Aurelius Æ Sestertius. Rome, AD 163. IMP CAES M AVREL ANTONINVS AVG P M, laureate bust right, slight drapery on far shoulder / SALVTI AVGVSTOR TR P XVII, Salus standing facing, head left, feeding out of patera in right hand a snake coiled around and rising from an altar, cradling sceptre in left arm, S-C across fields; COS III in exergue. RIC 844; MIR 18, 54-6/32; Banti 287; BMC 1042. 24.94g, 32mm, 11h. Good Extremely Fine. Ex Triton XII, 6 January 2009, lot 633. This coin displays a beautiful 'Tiber' patina and very good preservation of detail. Beautiful, untouched fields.

Etruria, Populonia AR Obol. 3rd century BC. Two dolphins, belly to belly, swimming in a circle / Blank. EC I, 122.2 (O2, this coin); HN Italy 223; Sambon -; Vicari 147. 0.65g, 10mm. Very Fine. Extremely Rare. From the VCV Collection.

Septimius Severus AV Aureus. Uncertain Eastern mint (Emesa or Alexandria?), AD 193. IMP CAE L SEP SEV PEPT (sic) AVG, laureate, draped and cuirassed bust right, seen from behind / LEG VIII AVG II COS, legionary Aquila between two standards, TR P COS in exergue. RIC -; C. -; Calico -; H.-J. Kellner, Neue Fundmünzen aus Bayern, JNG 28/29, 1978/1979, 43 pl. 9, 1. 7.23g, 20mm, 12h. Fleur De Coin. Of the Highest Rarity, only the second known after a unique but worn specimen was found in Bavaria in 1974. A highly important and fascinating issue. This exceedingly rare and important aureus is one of only four recorded gold types in the extensive ‘legionary’ series that Septimius issued after his accession in June of 193. Cassius Dio records that he paid an accession donative of 250 denarii (10 aurei) per soldier, and it is therefore highly likely that the Rome mint legionary issues were intended to satisfy this immediate requirement. The silver denarii were struck in vast quantities, with Legio VIII Augusta at Strasbourg being honoured with a particularly large issue, though not quite as large as that of Legio XIIII. The eastern issues are by comparison all extremely rare, having evidently been issued on a much smaller scale, and only the legions III, VIII and XIIII are honoured. Furthermore, at least some of the coins may not have been struck until after January 194, when Septimius became consul for the second time. This represents a gap of six months or more between the Rome legionary issues, and those of the eastern mints. The explanation for both the small scale of these issues and the time differential may be that they represent a belated donative payment to loyal troops stationed in the eastern provinces. It is known that Pescennius Niger’s support in the East was not universal; Septimius evidently had forces strong enough to block Legio II Traiana Fortis from sending military aid to Niger from Egypt. It is very possible therefore that locally stationed vexillationes (detachments) of the three aforementioned legions were present in the region and remained loyal to Septimius, and that they were paid their donatives with locally struck coinage after Septimius’ defeat of Niger in May 194. This hypothesis is supported by the known findspot of the only other aureus of this type, for Bavaria is only a short distance from the Legion’s home at Strasbourg, and that coin may have easily been lost there after returning home with a member of Legio VIII. The specific mint location for this aureus remains uncertain, though Emesa or Alexandria are considered the most likely options on the basis of practical, stylistic, and metrological considerations. The type mirrors a denarius issue attributed by the British Museum to ‘Emesa’, which also curiously puts both II COS and TR P COS on the reverse.

Septimius Severus AV Aureus. Rome, AD 201. SEVERVS AVG PART MAX, laureate head right / FVNDATOR PACIS, Severus, veiled, standing left, holding branch and scroll. RIC 160; Calicó 2459; C. 202; BMC 189. 7.25g, 19mm, 6h. Fleur De Coin. Very Rare. From the Ambrose Collection; Ex Numismatik Lanz 112, 25 November 2002, lot 598. Severus' rise to power required him to remove the threats of two others who had been proclaimed emperor, Pescennius Niger in the East and Clodius Albinus in the West. Having routed Niger and pacified the eastern provinces, and after his victory against Albinus at the Battle of Lugdunum, Severus consolidated support in the western provinces and then turned his attention back to increasing the bounds of the Roman Empire eastwards. In 197 Severus invaded Parthia and captured the Parthian capital Ctesiphon. The sack of Ctesiphon was particularly devastating. Severus gave his soldiers liberty to plunder the city at will and brutal slaughter ensued. According to Cassius Dio, as many as 100,000 women and children were sold into slavery, and an enormous amount of treasure was carried off from the city. Ctesiphon was however not garrisoned, and Severus withdrew from the city. Though he failed to reduce the city of Hatra, which had also held out against Trajan, the northern half of Mesopotamia was annexed to the empire, and for this victory Severus took the title parthicus maximus, as seen on the obverse legend of this type. While he could not claim total victory over the Parthians, he had dealt a severe blow to that kingdom, which endured no more than another twenty seven years before a revolt by the Sassadids overran the weakened empire. The reverse however reiterates Severus' role as a bringer of peace and stability, who had successfully dealt with both the usurpers within the empire and Rome's external enemies. Indeed, the reign of Severus can be considered to have been a prosperous and largely stable period - a last golden period before the coming of an age of iron and rust.

Septimius Severus AV Aureus. Rome, AD 207. SEVERVS PIVS AVG, laureate head right / RESTITVTOR VRBIS, Roma seated left on shield, holding palladium and sceptre. RIC 288; Calicó 2529; BMC 358; Hill 840. 6.76g, 21mm, 6h. Good Extremely Fine. Lustrous metal. Rare. Septimius Severus was credited with restoring stability to the Roman Empire after the turbulent reign of Commodus and the civil wars that erupted in the wake of his murder, and by the time this coin was struck he had enlarged the empire in the East and strengthened the southern borders through the expansion of the Limes Tripolitanus, a frontier zone of defensive forts in north Africa. The improved security of the empire enabled Severus to undertake restorative works in Rome itself, the theme of this reverse type. Roma, personification of Rome, is portrayed here as a direct reference to Severus' having restored peace and prosperity to the city.

Severus Alexander AV Aureus. Rome, AD 230. IMP SEV ALEXAND AVG, laureate head right, slight drapery on left shoulder / P M TR P VIIII COS III P P, Romulus, radiate, walking right, carrying spear and trophy. RIC 103; BMC 620; Calicó 3121 (same dies). 6.33g, 20mm, 7h. Fleur De Coin; perfectly centred on the flan. Rare. From the Ambrose Collection; Ex Roma Numismatics IV, 30 September 2012, lot 633; Ex Triton X, 9 January 2007, lot 701.

Gordian I AR Denarius. Rome, AD 238. IMP M ANT GORDIANVS AFR AVG, laureate, draped and cuirassed bust right / P M TR P COS P P, emperor standing left, holding olive branch and sceptre. RIC 1; BMC 1. 2.71g, 21mm, 6h. Fleur De Coin. Supremely well detailed; perfect strike, lustrous metal. An incredibly attractive coin, and easily the finest denarius of Gordian I Africanus we have ever handled. From the Ambrose Collection; Ex Roma Numismatics IV, 30 September 2012, lot 640.

Etruria, Populonia Æ Sextans. Late 3rd century BC. Young male head, •• behind / Two crescents and four stars. EC I, 130.8 (O1, this coin); HN Italy 115; Sambon 144. 12.32g, 28mm. Good Very Fine. Glossy green patina. From the VCV Collection.

Pupienus AR Denarius. Rome, AD 238. IMP C M CLOD PVPIENVS AVG, laureate, draped and cuirassed bust right / PAX PVBLICA, Pax seated left, holding branch and sceptre. RIC 4. 3.25g, 20mm, 12h. Fleur De Coin. A remarkably detailed portrait, engraved in excellent style and high relief. From the Gutekunst Collection; Ex A. Tkalec, 23 October 1998, lot 258.

Etruria, Populonia Æ Uncia. Late 3rd century BC. Female head right, hair caught up with band, • behind / Two crescents and four stars. EC I, 131.1 (this coin); HN Italy 116. 5.67g, 23mm. Fine. Extremely Rare, one of only two known examples. From the VCV Collection.

Etruria, Populonia Æ Uncia. Late 3rd century BC. Head of Sethluns right, •• behind / Etruscan legend 'vetalv pvflvna', hammer and tongs, •• between. EC I, 132.7 (this coin); HN Italy 188; Sambon 120. 11.90g, 23mm, 2h. Very Fine, weakly struck and pitted. Very Rare, no examples on CoinArchives. From the VCV Collection. The interpretation of vetalv as a personal name is more probable than that of Vetulonia, while pvflvna would seem to be a variant of the city’s name preferred by the magistrate, cf. TLE 379 and 794.

Maximianus AR Argenteus. Ticinum, AD 300. MAXIMIANVS AVG, laureate head right / XCVI - T in two lines across field within wreath with large central jewel. RIC 20b; Jeločnik -; RSC 698. 3.39g, 19mm, 1h. Fleur De Coin. Very Rare.

Maximianus Herculius AV Aureus. Nicomedia, AD 294. MAXIMIANVS P F AVG, laureate bust right / HERCVLI VICTORI, Hercules standing facing, head right, holding club and apples, lion skin draped over left arm; SMN in exergue. RIC 3; Depeyrot p. 119, 2/1; cf. Calicó 4668 var. (no apples). 5.36g, 20mm, 1h. Good Extremely Fine. Very Rare. From the Ambrose Collection; Ex Numismatica Ars Classica 59, 4 April 2011, lot 1154. Given the title ‘Herculius’ by Diocletian, Maximianus’ role was always that of the military might to Diocletian’s stategic planning, hence the rich and varied series of depictions of Hercules that we see on his coinage. This reverse depicts Hercules after the completion of his eleventh labour - to steal the apples of the Hesperides. The garden of the Hesperides, nymphs of the evening and golden light of sunset, is Hera’s garden in the west, where an apple tree grows which produces golden apples conferring immortality when eaten. Planted from the fruited branches that Gaia gave to Hera as a wedding gift when she wed Zeus, the garden and tree were tended by the Hesperides. After Hercules had completed his ten labours, Eurystheus gave him two more, claiming that neither the Hydra counted (because Iolaus helped him) nor the Augean stables either (because he received payment for the job or because the rivers did the work). Thus the first of these two additional labours was to steal the apples from the garden of the Hesperides. During this labour, Hercules had to take the vault of the heavens on his shoulders to relieve Atlas, who was the father of the Hesperides and could therefore persuade them to give up the apples. Having obtained the apples Atlas, relieved of his burden, was unwilling to take it back and offered to deliver the apples in Hercules’ stead. Hercules however tricked him by agreeing to take his place on condition that Atlas relieve him temporarily so that he could make his cloak more comfortable. Hercules was thus able to complete the task; as for the apples, as property of the gods, they had to be returned to the garden from which they had been removed, a task that Athena completed on Hercules’ behalf. In later years it was thought that the ‘golden apples’ might have actually been oranges, a fruit unknown to Europe and the Mediterranean before the Middle Ages. Under this assumption, the Greek botanical name chosen for all citrus species was Hesperidoeide (‘hesperidoids’ and even today the Greek word for the orange fruit is ‘Portokali’ after the country of Portugal in Iberia near where the Garden of the Hesperides was thought to grow. Struck in the east of the Empire at the new mint of Nicomedia, this coin was most probably produced in response to the increase in bureaucracy that the appointment of the two new Caesars in 293 will have occasioned, as well as the ever present needs of the army protecting the eastern frontier of the Empire.

Etruria, Populonia Æ Triens. Late 3rd century BC. Head of Menvra right, wearing Corinthian helmet, •••• below / Etruscan legend 'pvplvna', owl facing with wings spread, •••• between; countermarked crescent over line with two pellets. EC I, 133.26 (this coin); HN Italy 184; Sambon 114. 20.14g, 30mm, 11h. Very Fine, weakly struck. Rare. From the VCV Collection. The main bronze issues are made up of various denominations tariffed in unciae (represented by pellets) on a weight standard based on a nominal bronze as of 81g which was extant in Rome after the post-semilibral phase of c. 215-212 BC (Crawford 1974, 41).

Etruria, Luca (?) AR 5 Units. Circa 325-300 BC. Laureate young male head right, Λ behind, dotted border / Blank. EC I, 4.30 (this coin): HN Italy 97; Sambon 101. 11.18g, 23mm. Good Very Fine. From the VCV Collection; Ex Numismatica Ars Classica 29, 11 May 2005, lot 1. Luca (Modern Lucca) was originally inhabited by a Ligurian population, 20 km inland from the Tyrrhenian Sea and located on an island in the river Auser (Serchio); its territory reached the Arno to the southeast and hence the Etruscan frontier. Numerous recent site finds of Ligurian and Etruscan material excavated by the local superintendency in the surrounding area point to an aggressive confrontation of the two cultures from the fifth century BC, probably with alternating Ligurian and Etruscan occupations. Etruscan coin finds from nearby Gattaiola near Lucca, Ponte Gini in Orentano and Bora dei Frati in Versilia, make it virtually certain that by the third century BC Luca was an Etruscan city, the remains of which probably lie beneath the subsequent Roman and medieval town. Luca may have been an outpost of Volterrae, the principal city-state of northwest Etruria, or of Pisae, which from the end of the 6th century had become an important Etruscan centre extending its influence into Versilia and Pian di Lucca. The hippocamp series used a highly original system with value marks CC and C. It is struck on the same weight standard as Populonia's second Gorgoneion series, but with the 10-units curiously expressed in two multiples of five, CC (5+5 = 10).